By Virgilio C. Ventura
Since the dawn of mankind, generations have survived simply through the biological capacities and binary guidance of parents in every society. “The integrity of every society ultimately depends upon the competent parenting of children in family units, but questions about how that should take place arise periodically”1/ – concerns such as family unit composition, gender identity, and the roles of each parent often arise. Though it would appear at times that socio-economic and political issues of prejudices and discrimination are first experienced by a child within the family, it is not exactly from the family that such issues are rooted, but from other social agencies (or apparatuses, as Louie Althusser calls them) such as the church, the media, the law, and other cultural, medical, technical, political, and economic institutions wherefrom anti-egalitarian mindsets and narratives are constructed, cascaded, and reproduced on every individual through the process of socialization.
The studies of Chen et al. (2019)2/, Family Studies (2020)3/, and Perry et al. (2019)4/, all show that gender is not a critical factor in single parenthood. Both male and female parents can indeed provide excellent care for their children as single parents, considering factors such as parenting ability, societal attitudes, financial stability, gender roles, and socialization that can influence the experiences of single mothers and single fathers. Yet, it is also important to note that society must recognize the challenges faced by both genders, and thus support them in their parenting roles. Single-parent families may impact children’s gender role development due to the absence of one parent, though indeed, the gender identity of a single parent is not a critical factor in parenthood.
Moreover, findings in the study of Dufur et al. (2010) suggest that single fathers (who are white, slightly older, and better educated) are advantaged in terms of socioeconomic status and therefore have greater residential mobility when compared to children in single-mother homes who have lived longer in their current residence.5/
Cultural factors that impact differences in parenting practices in single-mother and single-father families across cultures
In a predominantly Catholic nation like the Philippines, being a single mother creates a social stigma that unnecessarily burdens an already difficult parenting responsibility. Expressing her sadness of being subjected to speculative social judgement, single-mother interviewee Maria (not her real name) says that: “There is nothing wrong with being a single mother. I never took advantage of anybody when I decided to be one. Instead of putting the blame on single mothers like us, know first the circumstances and learn to respect more the sacrifices we are making to raise our children,” (Fajardo-Jarilla, 2023).6/
Further, experience of intersectional social stigma has been studied by Jones et al. (2022) where single gay fathers “reported simultaneously experiencing stigma and inclusion at their child’s school”7/ while simultaneously being confronted with financial support limitations.
Haudar et al. (2016) conducted a phenomenological study which scrutinized the experiences of solo-male parents in raising their children in the public elementary schools of Sarangani Province, Philippines. The study revealed their journey, challenges, and prospects, and the respondents, through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions, intimated their fears and anxiety “on how they could continue to provide for their children now that they have to assume the responsibility of a mom and dad to their children.” They expressed their concern over “money-making and financial stability” and the “(social) stigma of broken family, as they viewed this to be a failure” on their part as a parent.8/
Likewise, in a transformative crossing of gender-based parenting identity, the study of Arboleda and Singson (2022) on the lived experiences of emerging adult single fathers on parenting in a rural community showed that “the presence of their children served as an inspiration to change despite its struggles and burdens” even to the extent of going back to school “to increase employment opportunities and to provide for their children’s needs.”9/
“My life changed because of my daughter. Maybe I am still the same person today if I don’t have a child now. When I am tempted to initiate conflict with others, I always think of my daughter as someone who is waiting for me at home.”9/
Fortunately, through conscientious national social legislations, the welfare of solo parents has come a long way in the Philippines since the enactment of Republic Act 8972, or the Solo Parents Welfare Act of 2000. The law was recently amended into Republic Act 11861, or the Expanded Solo Parents Welfare Act of 2022 that grants additional benefits to solo parents. This legislation has tasked national government agencies including credible non-government organizations to implement a comprehensive package of social protection services for solo parents and their families.10/
As explained above, sex-based parenting differences may exist, but only in as far as the absence of a second parent, rather than specific sex-typed parenting might explain them.
However, when studying the differences in mothering and fathering behavior in single-parent households, there is a need to contextualize the differences within the individualist and structuralist perspectives for potential sex-based parenting behaviors. Results suggest that, although there are small differences in the parenting behaviors of single mothers and single fathers, differences are sensitive to demographic disparities and do not translate to academic deficits for children in either family type.
The evidence for the persistence of sex-based behavior and attitudes may be strongest in the family, where women continue to provide the majority of childcare and household work despite their growing likelihood of working outside of the home (see Sayer, Bianchi, & Robinson, 2004).11/
Single-Parent Gender Identity’s Impact on Child Role Development
Based on research, single-parent families can impact children’s gender role development due to the absence of one parent. Gender roles are shaped by the interaction of innate (genetic) and acquired (socially constructed) factors, and the gender configuration of single-parent family members influences children’s gender role development. Boys brought up in a single-parent family may experience a certain inadequacy and inferiority, while girls may assimilate their mother’s qualities and form maladaptive femininity.12/
Conclusion
As shown by the reviewed studies, the impact of a single parent’s gender on a child’s gender role development is not a straightforward concern. Depending on attendant variables at the time of a specific investigation, results of some studies suggest that a single parent’s gender impacts on a child’s gender role development while others also suggest that there is no direct link between the two. As such and through more research, it is important to consider a reading of the specific context of each family and the individual needs of each child when examining the impact of single parenthood on a child’s gender role development. END
NOTES:
1/ Westman, J.C. (1998), Society’s Stake in Parenthood, Parenthood in America. https://parenthood.library.wisc.edu/Westman/Westman-Society.html
2/ Chen, I-Jun, Hailun Zhang, Bingsi Wei, and Zeyao Guo. “The model of children’s social adjustment under the gender-roles absence in single-parent families.” International Journal of Psychology 54, no. 3 (2018), 316-324. https://studycorgi.com/single-parenthood-households/
3/ Hymowitz, K. (2020), Disentangling the Effects of Family Structure on Boys and Girls. https://ifstudies.org/blog/disentangling-the-effects-of-family-structure-on-boys-and-girls
4/ Perry, D. G., Pauletti, R. E., & Cooper, P. J. (2019). Gender identity in childhood: A review of the literature. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 43(4), 289–304. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025418811129
5/ Dufur, M. J., Howell, N. C., Downey, D. B., Ainsworth, J. W., & Lapray, A. J. (2010). Sex Differences in Parenting Behaviors in Single-Mother and Single-Father Households. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(5), 1092–1106. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40865597
6/ Fajardo-Jarilla, R. (2023), Philippines: Single Mothers Continue to Fight Stigma, Institute for War & Peace Reporting (IWPR). https://iwpr.net/global-voices/philippines-single-mothers-continue-fight-stigma
7/ Haudar, F.S. (2016), The Journey of Solo-Male Parents of Public Elementary School Children: Challenges and Prospects, Vol. 4 No. 10, International Journal of Education and Research, Davao City, Philippines. https://www.ijern.com/journal/2016/October-2016/14.pdf
8/ An Act Granting Additional Benefits to Solo Parents, amending for the purpose Republic Act No. 8972, entitled “An Act Providing for Benefits and Privileges to Solo Parents and Their Children, Appropriating Funds Therefor and for Other Purposes (Republic Act No. 11861, June 04, 2022), LAWPHil Project. https://lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra2022/ra_11861_2022.html
9/ Sayer, L. C., Bianchi, S. M., & Robinson, J. P. (2004). Are Parents Investing Less in Children? Trends in Mothers’ and Fathers’ Time with Children. American Journal of Sociology, 110(1), 1-43. https://doi.org/10.1086/386270 https://csde.washington.edu/downloads/bianchi_AJS_paper.pdf
10/ Chen, I-J., Tang, P., & Saba, P. (2023). The Development of Gender Roles: From Two-Parent Families to Single-Parent Families with One Gender Role Missing. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 11, 376-395. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2023.116024 https://www.scirp.org/pdf/jss_2023062814363626.pdf
